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Module 1 table of contents
DISCUSSION OF "POINTS TO PONDER"
MODULE
1
Below please find
a short discussion about each of the “Points to Ponder” from Module
1. An additional group and/or individual activity has been added to each point
to extend your thinking about the topic further. Toward this end, text and
online resources have been provided for each activity. These range from simple
or basic resources to more advanced so that you may choose those which suit
your particular level of experience and ability.
1.2.1: Reflecting on your own
tutoring experiences, have you used an approach that was more toward the
andragogical end of the continuum? If so, what were you hoping to gain? If not,
why?
Taylor, Marineau and Fiddler
(2000, p. 15) offer the following as their rationale for utilizing an
andragogical approach in their practice as adult educators:
We also suggest (and research
confirms) … that information-focused approaches to learning often leave
learners’ underlying assumptions intact. Reproductive learning is unlikely
either to challenge existing beliefs and interpretations or—of particular
note to those involved in workplace education—to enable learners to use
information in new settings.
While it is tempting for many of
us to subscribe wholeheartedly to a facilitated approach, as Brockett (1994, p.
10) cautions us, flexibility is crucial to effective teaching:
In their enthusiasm to embrace
an approach that clearly holds much promise, some educators may take the
extreme position that self-direction is the best, indeed, the only effective
way for adults to learn. This is simply not so! As educators of adults, we need
to recognize the vast array of approaches and philosophies available to work
successfully with adult learners and to recognize the inherent limitations of
any approach (p. 10).
Knowing where to
position oneself on a teaching-learning continuum will depend on many factors,
a major one being the purpose of the activity. As Brundage & MacKeracher
(1980, pp. 58-59) suggest, a pedagogical or directed approach is best used to
help learners “acquire specific skills and knowledge relevant and
essential to specific tasks and performance (e.g., driving a car, speaking a
foreign language, becoming a certified plumber).” Some educators refer to
this as “training” rather than educating students.
An andragogical or facilitated
approach they suggest, is best used to help the learner “discover
personal meanings within knowledge, skills, and attitudes already learned;
discover new meanings within experience; [and] create new meanings, values,
skills, and strategies from integrating new and old learning (e.g., learning to
“be a professional;” self discovery …).
Individual or Group
Activity
Brainstorm a list of strategies
for teaching in a directed and facilitated fashion.
Resources:
- Auerbach, E. R. (1992). How Do
Participatory and Traditional Approaches to Educating Adults Differ? Available:
http://adulteducation.smartlibrary.info/NewInterface/
segment.cfm?segment=2696&table_of_contents=2005 (United States
Department of Education web site under Office of Vocational and Adult
Education, Smart Library on Adult Education)
- Brown, O. (1996). Tips at Your
Fingertips: Teaching Strategies for Adult Literacy Tutors. International
Reading Association
- Gregory, G. & Chapman, C.
(2001). Differentiated Instructional Strategies: One Size Doesn't Fit All.
Corwin Press Inc.
- Monts, R. (2000). Andragogy or
Pedagogy: A Discussion of Instructional Methodology for Adult Learners.
Available:
http://www.coe.ilstu.edu/scienceed/
jinks/ci538/papers/monts.htm
- Orlich, D. (2000). Teaching
Strategies: A Guide to Better Instruction. Houghton Mifflin Company College
Division.
- Ornstein, A. & Lasley, T.
(1999). Strategies for Effective Teaching. McGraw-Hill.
- Piderit, G. and Quijano, L. What
are the main techniques used in Adult Education? Available:
http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/
~daniel_schugurensky/faqs/qa14.html (University of Toronto web site under
Professor Schugurensky’s home page).
- Renner, P. (1999) The Art of
Teaching Adults. Vancouver: Training Associates.
- Shalaway, L. & Beech, L.
(1998). Learning to Teach...Not Just for Beginners: The Essential Guide for All
Teachers. Scholastic Inc.
- Vella, J. & Vella, J. K. (
2000). Taking Learning to Task: Creative Strategies for Teaching Adults. John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
- Vella, J. & Vella, J. K. (
2002). Learning to Listen, Learning to Teach: The Power of Dialogue in
Educating Adults. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
1.3.1: As we move toward the
facilitation end of the continuum, the notion of
“learner-centredness” takes on increasing importance. Reflect on your
own experience as a tutor and think of an example of how you have (or could
make) your own teaching environment more learner-centred.
“Learner-centredness”
relates to both the content and process of adult literacy, and can range from
the individual to the program level. At the individual level, it can involve
framing learning activities around a learner’s interests or needs
(content), to collaborating with the student to set goals and/or plan learning
activities and assessment strategies.
At the program level,
learner-centredness can involve the actual development and running of a
program. For example, the following is an example from an adult literacy
program in Kitchener, Ontario in which the notion of
“learner-centredness” was integrated into the development of the
program:
When the program began at St.
John’s Kitchen, we went into it with the philosophy that we were trying to
provide learning for people who were not able to access other adult education
programs. We thought it was important to ask people who were interested in
improving their reading and writing skills how they would best be able to do
that. I asked about the best times to meet during the week, and whether or not
people wanted to meet in a group or individually with a staff person or
tutor… We found that in the program at St. John’s, adults felt they
were being listened to and they were able to learn some literacy skills that
were relevant to their daily needs (Draper & Taylor, 1992, p.
234).
Norton (2000) suggests that many
adult literacy programs involve students in the running of programs in an
effort to be more learner-centred:
In programs, learner
involvement has included serving on boards, assisting with program operations
and fund raising, speaking to the media, participating in tutor training,
forming student groups, and peer tutoring (Chapter 2).
Ball (1996) suggests that the
benefits of being more learner-centred include:
… the potential to promote
both personal and social change because [it] provide[s] learners with
opportunities to:
-
validate their language, experiences, and knowledge and become
aware of their own capabilities and power;
-
acquire new tools for expanding their knowledge and understanding
of both personal and community issues;
- develop
a critical awareness of the social and political sources of
the problems they confront as individuals and as members of
their communities;
- use
all forms of language to explore, reflect upon, and dialogue
about those issues;
-
articulate solutions and take action in the direction of positive
change.
Writing about the learner-centred
approach of The Learning Exchange program in Saint John, New Brunswick, Wells
(1992) suggests that the staff and board hold fast to this approach simply put,
“because it works” (p. 380). Like Ball (1996), Wells views the main
benefit of learner-centredness as empowering learners:
...learners get jobs because
they can read and write more effectively. Their confidence and self-esteem is
heightened and they like themselves more. The life-benefits seem obvious, but
are sometimes subtle. Learners become leaders, they help others, they peer
tutor, they take hold of problems and they begin to control their own
environment (p. 388).
Individual
Activity
Develop a list of situations when
a tutor might choose to adopt a learner-centred approach, and when s/he might
use a teacher-centred approach. What factors influence a tutor’s
decision-making in this regard?
Group Activity
Facilitate a discussion regarding
the following question:
- What do we do if being
learner-centred (i.e., responding to the needs/wants of our learners) means
that we need to be more teacher-centred (i.e., learners want us to teach in a
traditional or pedagogical manner)?
Resources:
- Brockett, R. & Hiemstra, R.
(1990). Self-Direction in Adult Learning: Perspectives on Theory, Research, and
Practice. Available:
http://home.twcny.rr.com/hiemstra/sdilch6.html
- Daloz, L. (1988). The story of
Gladys who refused to grow: A morality tale for mentors. Lifelong Learning: An
Omnibus of Practice and Research, 11(4), pp. 4-7.
- Gregory, G. & Chapman, C.
(2001). Differentiated Instructional Strategies: One Size Doesn't Fit All.
Corwin Press Inc
- Hiemstra, R. & Brockett, R.
(1994). From behaviourism to humanism. In H. Long & Associates, New ideas
about self-directed learning. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for
Continuing Professional and Higher Education, University of Oklahoma.
- Lacefield, R. (d/ukn). On Being a
Transformative Educator. Available:
http://members.tripod.com/~Roberta/transform.htm.
- Magro, K. (2002). Exploring
Teaching Roles and Responsibilities in Adult Literacy Education: Do Teachers
See Themselves as Transformative Educators? Available:
http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/CASAE/
cnf2002/2002_Papers/magro2002w.pdf
- St. Clair, R. (2002). Andragogy
Revisited. ERIC Myths and Realities No. 19. Available:
http://ericacve.org/docs/mr00034.pdf
- Tight, M. (1999). Mythologies of
Adult/Continuing/Lifelong Education. Available:
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/
documents/000001021.htm
1.4.5.A: How might a family
literacy learning unit on positive discipline proceed through the four stages
of Kolb's experiential learning cycle?
One example of using Kolb’s
experiential learning cycle in a family literacy activity focusing on positive
discipline is as follows:
-
Concrete Experience –
Parents in a family literacy class are provided with information about positive
discipline, then work through a number of role playing exercises.
-
Reflective Observation
– The parent learners are asked to write about or discuss their beliefs
regarding discipline.
-
Abstract Conceptualization
– The parent learners discuss the moral, legal, psychological issues
involved in disciplining children.
-
Active Experimentation
– The parent learners try out the techniques learned with their children
at home.
Individual or Group
Activity
Brainstorm a list of teaching
strategies that could be used in each stage of the cycle.
Resources:
1.4.5.B: Should personal
maturation/change be a direct goal of education as transformational learning
would suggest? Why or why not?
In a recent study regarding the
roles and responsibilities of adult literacy teachers, Magro (2002) reported
that participants (adult literacy educators) had many reservations about the
role of the teacher as “change agent” or “transformative
educator.” Merriam and Caffarella (1999, p. 385) suggest that there are no
simple answers to the ethical dilemmas raised by approaches such as
transformational learning:
The systematic
knowledge that we do have about the context of adult learning, who the adult
learners are, why and how they learn … is only partly helpful in making
ethical decisions. Societal, community, professional, and individual values
play a much larger role in shaping our practice. Competing courses of action
and alternative choices, each with its own merits means that educational
planners, instructors, and learners themselves must examine the beliefs and
values that form the basis for choosing among alternatives. It is this kind of
awareness—awareness of why we do things the way we do—that leads to
responsible, ethical practice in adult learning.
Awareness of one’s underlying
philosophy regarding education (Module 2, Section 2.3.1), and the
adoption of a critically reflective attitude towards one’s profession (Module 3, Section
3.2) are two ways in which adult educators can develop the
“awareness” that leads to “responsible, ethical practice.”
Individual or Group
Activity
Develop a list of advantages and
disadvantages to transformational learning from the point of view of each
philosophical orientation (Module 2, Section 2.3.1)
.
Resources:
- Brockett, R. (1994). Resistance
to self-direction in adult learning: Myths and misunderstandings. In Brockett
& Hiemstra (Eds.), Overcoming Resistance to Self-Direction in Adult
Learning. Available: http://www-distance.syr.edu/ndacesdch1.html.
- Daloz, L. (1988). The story of
Gladys who refused to grow: A morality tale for mentors. Lifelong Learning: An
Omnibus of Practice and Research, 11(4), pp. 4-7.
- Grabove, V. (1997). The many
facets of transformative learning theory and practice. In New Directions for
Adult and Continuing Education, 74, pp. 89-95.
- Magro, K. (2002). Exploring
Teaching Roles and Responsibilities in Adult Literacy Education: Do Teachers
See Themselves as Transformative Educators? Available:
http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/CASAE/
cnf2002/2002_Papers/magro2002w.pdf
- Mezirow, J. (1990). Fostering
Critical Reflection in Adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
- Mezirow, J. (1991).
Transformative Dimensions Of Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
- Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformative
learning:Theory to practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education,
74, pp. 5-11.
1.4.5.C: What responsibilities
would an educator who is adhering to a humanist philosophy have toward teaching
and learning? Reflect on your own tutoring and experiences as a student. Have
you used and/or experienced a humanistic approach? Did it help and/or hinder
the effectiveness of learning? How so?
MacKeracher (1996, p. 230)
writes:
As a facilitator, the humanistic
model reminds me that I have important responsibilities to:
- Create a climate valuing learning
and reducing disincentives or obstacles to a minimum
- Help the learner to clarify
learning needs, purposes, and objectives
- Organize and make available the
widest possible range of resources
- Present myself as a flexible
resource to be used by the learner
- Behave in simultaneous roles
– as a co-learner who can and will learn from and with the learner; an
objective observer who can respond to the individual needs and feelings of the
learner; and a subjective participant who will act on and share feelings, needs
and responsibilities
An important point raised in
MacKeracher’s characterization of a humanist educator is the notion that
students should be encouraged to relate to the educator in a much more personal
manner than has typically been the case in traditional education. While most
adult learners will flourish under this approach, for other students it can
actually hinder learning in that some perceive the role of a teacher as an
authority figure whose role it is to impart knowledge.
Individual or Group
Activity
Develop a list of teaching and
classroom management strategies that a humanist educator would and would not
tend to utilize.
Resources:
- Cooper , M. (1997). The Politics
of Humanism: Defining Educational Philosophy and It's Role in Adult Educational
Practice. Available:
http://www.anrecs.msu.edu/research/cooper.htm
(Paper presented at the Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult,
Continuing and Community Education, Michigan State University)
- Hiemstra, R. & Brockett, R.
(1994). From behaviourism to humanism. In H. Long & Associates, New ideas
about self-directed learning. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for
Continuing Professional and Higher Education, University of Oklahoma.
- Werner, C. (d/unk). Adult
Education Philosophies - What's That Got To Do With Teaching Adults? Available:
http://www.llcc.edu/teal/Philosophies.htm#Humanist
(Lincoln Land Community College TEAL Program web site)
- Characteristics and Needs of
Adult Learners in Literacy Programs. Available:
http://wilearns.state.wi.us/apps/Default.asp?cid=645
(The Wisconsin Literacy and Reading Network Source web site)
- Philosophies of Adult Education.
Available:
http://www.fsu.edu/
~adult-ed/jenny/philosophy.html (Florida State University web site under
Jenny Grills home page)
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