2.2.6 A New Era of Language Learning

Many educators, researchers and writers have already begun to evolve visions for learning in the 21^st century while those interested in language learning are beginning to describe a new era of language learning. In terms of learning in general, Henchey et al. (1996) have outlined a vision which is based on the views of organizations, scholars and research centres from around the North American continent and proposes to take all learners into the 21^st century. The vision is articulated in stark contrast to the traditional approach to education or the instructional paradigm. It is first and foremost a learner-centered education that is driven by the "knowledge, skills and attitudes" of the student and which is characterized by "personal control of learning by students" (Ibid.). Under this paradigm, students become "active discovers and constructors of their own knowledge". Knowledge construction, communities of learners, individual and collective discovery and problem solving, holistic learning: these will be important qualifiers for education in the 21^st century. This new paradigm for education contrasts boldly with the traditional paradigm. The following table contrasts the two paradigms or the conventional and reform approaches to education:

The emphasis in the new era of language learning is on construction as opposed to transmission of knowledge. While the dominant psychology of the preceding era was that of behaviourism, constructivist psychology or philosophy has emerged as the alternative to the "instructional paradigm" and the behaviourist approach to education. Fosnot (1996) explains that, although constructivism is not a theory of teaching, it suggests taking a radically different approach to instruction from that used in most schools. She summarizes the constructivist approach as follows:

...a constructivist view of learning suggests an approach to teaching that givers learners the opportunity for concrete, contextually meaningful experience through which they can search for patterns, raise their own questions, and construct their own models, concepts, and strategies. The classroom in this model is seen as a mini-society, a community of learners engaged in activity, discourse and reflection. (p. ix)

The constructivist view argues that knowledge and reality do not have an objective or absolute value or, at the least, that we have no way of knowing this reality. Von Glasersfeld (1995) indicates in relation to the concept of reality: "It is made up of the network of things and relationships that we rely on in our living, and on which, we believe, others rely on, too" (p.7). The knower interprets and constructs a reality based on his experiences and interactions with his environment. Rather than thinking of truth in terms of a match to reality, von Glasersfeld focuses instead on the notion of viability: "To the constructivist, concepts, models, theories, and so on are viable if they prove adequate in the contexts in which they were created" (p.7).

Such a conception of knowledge leads thus to a conception of learning that contrasts sharply with the behaviourist view. Learning is no longer a stimulus-response phenomenon. Instead, it requires self-regulation and the building of conceptual structures through reflection and abstraction (von Glasersfeld, 1995). According to von Glasersfeld (1987), learning is a process of constructing meaningful representations, of making sense of one's experiential world. The focus of concern is not just the learner's cognitions, but the learner's cognitions, beliefs, and conceptions of knowledge (Ernest, 1995). It is the realities of others along with our own realities that we strive to understand, but we can never take any of these realities as fixed (Ernest, 1995).

Based on this view of learning, the teacher's role is transformed into that of a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to solve problems (Jonassen, 1991). Von Glasersfeld, 1995) describes the role of the constructivist teacher as that of a "midwife in the birth of understanding" whose job it is, not to dispense knowledge, but to provide students with opportunities and incentives to build it up. Teachers serve as "guides", and learners as "sense makers" (Mayer, 1996). They are coordinators, facilitators, resource advisors, tutors or coaches (Gergen, 1995). Most importantly, teachers themselves become learners along with students, as teaching becomes a learning process for the teacher (Driver, Aasoko, Leach, Mortimer Scott, 1994).

Where behaviorism emphasizes observable, external behaviours and, as such, avoids reference to meaning, representation and thought, constructivism takes a more cognitive approach. This subtle difference has profound implications for all aspects of a theory of learning. The way in which knowledge is conceived and acquired, the types of knowledge, skills and activities emphasized, the role of the learner and the teacher, how goals are established: all of these factors are articulated differently in the constructivist perspective. Within constructivism itself, authors, researchers and theorists articulate differently the constructivist perspective by emphasizing different components. The following principles of constructivism are some which have been commonly articulated by writers, researchers and educators. Constructivist learning environments are those that:

• emphasize the process and not the product (von Glasersfeld, 1987);
• stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on the content (Jonassen, 1991) and allow for multiple modes of representation (Honebein, 1996);
• negotiate instructional goals and objectives (Jonassen, 1991);
• make evaluation serve as a self-analysis tool (Ibid.);
• represent the natural complexity of the real world (Jonassen, 1994);
• focus on knowledge construction, not reproduction (Ibid.);
• present authentic tasks (contextualizing rather than abstracting instruction) (Ibid.);
• provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined instructional sequences (Ibid.);
• enable context- and content- dependent knowledge construction (Ibid.);
• support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation (Ibid.);
• attend to students' prior and emerging knowledge (Ernest,1995; von Glasersfeld 1989);
• create experiences that challenge students' prior conceptions and knowledge (Savery Duffy, 1995);
• embed learning in a rich, authentic problem-solving environment (Wilson Cole 1991);
• provide for learner control (Ibid.); use errors as a mechanism to provide feedback on learners' understanding (Ibid.);
• pay attention to meta-cognition and strategic self-regulation by learners (Ernest, 1995);
• emphasize the importance of goals for the learner, and the dichotomy between learner and teacher goals (Ibid.);
• encourage ownership and voice in the learning process (Honebein, 1996);
• embed learning in social experience (Ibid.);
• encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process (Honebein, 1996).

These characteristics of constructivist learning have been echoed by many writers, appear frequently in the literature on education reform and are frequently discussed in relation to science and mathematics' education. Williams and Burden (1997) consider how a constructivist approach applies to language learning. They use a social-interactionist framework which they describe as a "much-needed theoretical underpinning to a communicative approach to language teaching, where it is maintained that we learn a language through using the language to interact meaningfully with other people" (p.39). They describe learning languages as a process of making sense of the world within a social context and through social interactions where the "personal constructions and subjective realities of teacher and pupil" converge:

As we see it, babies are born into social worlds, come to develop a concept of self as a result of their interactions with others, and increasingly employ language to make sense of that social world and to help them play an effective part within it. Thus, an understanding of the social factors which play a part in our increasing competence as language users is essential for all language teachers. (p.3)

The authors outline ten basic propositions which they consider "crucial" for language teachers and which serve as a guide for teaching and learning languages from a constructivist perspective in the 21^st century.

1. There is a difference between learning and education which implies that in order to be of value, a learning experience should contribute to a person's whole education as well as to their learning of an aspect of the language.
2. Learners learn what is meaningful to them so that whatever language input is presented to them, we cannot predict what each individual will learn or how the learner's language system will develop. Teachers must therefore have a sound grasp of what their learners see as important and meaningful.
3. Learners learn in ways that are meaningful to them which means that teachers will need to provide a variety of language learning activities which allow for different learning styles and individual preferences and personalities.
4. Learners learn better if they feel in control of what they are learning: learners need to be encouraged to talk about their aims and set goals for themselves regarding learning the language.
5. Learning is closely linked to how people feel about themselves. The individual's self-concept as a language learner will strongly influence the way in which he/she learns.
6. Learning takes place in a social context through interaction with other people. The nature of interaction in the target language will influence the quality of learning that language thus teachers need to be aware of the interactions that occur in the classroom.
7. What teachers do in the classroom will reflect their own beliefs and attitudes. Whatever methodology is used, it is the beliefs of teachers that will influence what goes on in the classroom.
8. There is a significant role for the teacher as mediator in the language classroom. The teacher fosters the right climate for individual respect, for confidence building, for appropriate learning strategies and for learner autonomy.
9. Learning tasks represent an interface between teachers and learners. Teachers' choice of learning activities reflect their beliefs and values and learners will interpret these activities in ways that are meaningful to them.
10. Learning is influenced by the situation in which it occurs. The broader social, educational and political context within which language learning experiences occur as well as the cultural background of the learners will influence the learning that takes place. (p.204)

These ten propositions provide us with ways in which to conceptualize language learning and teaching from a constructivist perspective. Certainly the focal point in their propositions is the position of the learner at the centre of the learning process. Individual meaning, individualized learning contexts, learner control and goals, self-concept, self-awareness: these elements all play a pivotal role in the learning process. The emphasis on the social context for learning highlights the social-constructivist underpinning in their approach. The contexts and situations in which language learning occurs are portrayed as instrumental in determining the learning which takes place. As well, it is the interaction with others who are a part of the situation or context that plays a major role in determining the success of the learning experience. The role of the teacher is also central in their approach. The role is described as one in which the teacher is acutely aware of and attuned to the needs of the learner, to the context for learning and, as well, to the teacher's own beliefs about learning and languages.

Pusak and Otto (1997) provide a description of language learning which fits well with constructivist principles as well as with the propositions of Williams and Burden. They describe a "new era" of language learning characterized by the following:

• Emphasizes process rather than product;
• emphasizes function over form;
• uses a holistic approach;
• develops communicative competency;
• develops cross-cultural insights and strategies for effective communication with other peoples;
• uses authentic materials and provides experiences for all levels of language learning;
• relies on performance-based assessment;
• values collaborative group work;
• sees students as lifelong learners;
• uses a broad language curriculum;
• favours development of critical thinking skills;
• operates in a multi-disciplinary context;
• promotes student-directed, student-centered learning;
• accommodates different learner styles and strategies.

Many of these characteristics of language learning described by Pusak and Otto could be applied to learning in other subject areas. Life-long learning, collaborative learning, critical thinking skills, performance-based assessment, student-centered learning, accommodation of different styles, focus on strategies, multi-disciplinary contexts, a holistic approach and the emphasis on process: these elements represent a general emphasis which can be given to teaching and learning in general. The American Psychological Association in its listing of principles for learner-centered education for the 21^st century (1995) echoes the same elements as Pusak and Otto, as Williams and Burden and, in general, of constructivist learning. Its principles emphasize the importance of the social contexts for learning, knowledge construction, higher-order strategies and critical thinking, self-awareness and beliefs, authentic tasks, and the importance of the context for learning to mention but a few of the principles.

The principles of learning as articulated by Pusak and Otto, Williams and Burden, the American Psychological Association and, most importantly, by constructivism, provide the basis for a new era of language learning. Replacing the behaviorist framework which has guided language teaching for much of the last century is a highly student-centered approach to learning - that of constructivism and more specifically social-constructivism as described by Williams and Burden (1997). While Communicative Language Teaching presents a seemingly viable approach, it lacks any grounding in educational theory. Many aspects of CLT can be related to constructivism but the approach is nothing more than that - an approach. As Stern (1983) argues, what is needed is not a method or approach but a more deliberate interpretation of language teaching in terms of educational theory. Constructivism offers to language teaching a basis from which to derive approaches and methods.

The evolution of language learning from the early days of the behaviourist approach and now possibly to a constructivist approach parallels the evolution of technology use in language teaching. As we shall see in the next section which looks at the evolution of technology use in teaching languages, behaviourism has dominated the CALL landscape since its beginnings. However, technology use is now slowly beginning to reflect constructivist principles. Pusak and Otto's description of the new era of language learning is predicated on the use of technology - specifically multimedia. Technology is also included as an essential element or catalyst in much of the literature on reform. It will no doubt play a pivotal role in all aspects of life and learning in the new millennium. The aim of this next section is therefore to describe the role technology has played in second-language teaching during the last century. The pattern of use, the development and general evolution of the use of technology use did not evolve independently of or even parallel to language and learning theories. Many factors - some social, some educational, some theoretical, combined to provide the conditions for change and for the implementation of particular techniques and use of certain equipment. The following section will give consideration to these factors in order to provide a comprehensive picture of the evolution of technology use during the past century and into the 21^st century.